Stress is inevitable. Everyone experiences some type and level of it normally, but the COVID-19 pandemic has created a much more stressful environment than usual. A recent study on stress by the American Psychological Association found that more than 6 in 10 adults have had undesired weight changes since the start of the pandemic, and 1 in 4 essential workers have been diagnosed with a mental health disorder.
Stress is not always a bad thing, though. Certain kinds of stress can have positive effects on a person’s well-being, at least in the right doses. According to Psychology Today, “A little bit of stress, known as ‘acute stress,’ can be exciting—it keeps us active and alert.” When stress reaches an unmanageable level, however, it turns “chronic.” That’s when we become vulnerable to its damaging effects such as health problems and loss of productivity. By one estimate, workplace-related stress alone costs society more than $300 billion per year – and that’s not even taking into account the pandemic.
To determine the cities where Americans cope best, WalletHub compared more than 180 cities across 41 key metrics. Our data set ranges from COVID-19 cases to average weekly work hours to divorce and suicide rates.
Main Findings
Most & Least Stressed Cities in America
Overall Rank* |
City |
Total Score |
Work Stress |
Financial Stress |
Family Stress |
Health & Safety Stress |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Cleveland, OH | 61.55 | 147 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
2 | Detroit, MI | 56.66 | 131 | 14 | 3 | 7 |
3 | New Orleans, LA | 55.52 | 31 | 15 | 11 | 22 |
4 | Baltimore, MD | 55.13 | 6 | 19 | 7 | 80 |
5 | Newark, NJ | 55.09 | 1 | 12 | 85 | 64 |
6 | San Bernardino, CA | 54.87 | 60 | 44 | 2 | 13 |
7 | Birmingham, AL | 54.85 | 135 | 11 | 5 | 17 |
8 | North Las Vegas, NV | 53.67 | 92 | 37 | 4 | 12 |
9 | Philadelphia, PA | 53.51 | 2 | 40 | 50 | 46 |
10 | Memphis, TN | 53.48 | 85 | 13 | 21 | 16 |
11 | Huntington, WV | 53.47 | 122 | 6 | 70 | 5 |
12 | Shreveport, LA | 53.19 | 39 | 2 | 100 | 28 |
13 | Hialeah, FL | 53.17 | 30 | 25 | 6 | 61 |
14 | Mobile, AL | 52.94 | 119 | 7 | 97 | 1 |
15 | Jackson, MS | 52.75 | 108 | 26 | 10 | 11 |
16 | Augusta, GA | 52.60 | 124 | 10 | 74 | 4 |
17 | Dover, DE | 52.49 | 28 | 21 | 23 | 65 |
18 | St. Louis, MO | 52.47 | 77 | 9 | 63 | 20 |
19 | Gulfport, MS | 52.22 | 63 | 22 | 25 | 30 |
20 | Toledo, OH | 52.17 | 112 | 8 | 44 | 24 |
21 | Columbus, GA | 51.75 | 98 | 5 | 42 | 45 |
22 | Akron, OH | 51.43 | 97 | 4 | 36 | 56 |
23 | Wilmington, DE | 51.13 | 23 | 31 | 13 | 87 |
24 | Montgomery, AL | 51.12 | 140 | 3 | 59 | 35 |
25 | New Haven, CT | 50.89 | 9 | 27 | 40 | 112 |
26 | Cincinnati, OH | 50.72 | 89 | 18 | 28 | 49 |
27 | Milwaukee, WI | 50.57 | 71 | 30 | 17 | 39 |
28 | Norfolk, VA | 50.44 | 53 | 20 | 39 | 60 |
29 | Indianapolis, IN | 50.42 | 38 | 23 | 46 | 62 |
29 | Little Rock, AR | 50.42 | 90 | 17 | 95 | 14 |
31 | Richmond, VA | 50.17 | 22 | 29 | 35 | 88 |
32 | Tulsa, OK | 49.83 | 129 | 47 | 54 | 6 |
33 | Baton Rouge, LA | 49.83 | 104 | 32 | 82 | 8 |
34 | Bridgeport, CT | 49.83 | 3 | 38 | 24 | 165 |
35 | Las Vegas, NV | 49.67 | 93 | 58 | 15 | 26 |
36 | Miami, FL | 49.64 | 103 | 16 | 27 | 73 |
37 | Fort Smith, AR | 49.63 | 152 | 24 | 104 | 2 |
38 | Vancouver, WA | 49.50 | 16 | 46 | 32 | 77 |
39 | Wichita, KS | 49.31 | 120 | 53 | 29 | 15 |
40 | Chicago, IL | 49.25 | 8 | 35 | 51 | 124 |
41 | Newport News, VA | 47.66 | 20 | 42 | 105 | 53 |
42 | Glendale, AZ | 47.54 | 52 | 64 | 52 | 43 |
43 | Henderson, NV | 47.47 | 107 | 75 | 18 | 47 |
44 | Phoenix, AZ | 47.33 | 66 | 72 | 65 | 29 |
45 | Chattanooga, TN | 47.28 | 132 | 51 | 78 | 18 |
46 | Springfield, MO | 47.26 | 133 | 39 | 109 | 10 |
47 | Houston, TX | 47.25 | 18 | 100 | 38 | 83 |
48 | Brownsville, TX | 46.90 | 162 | 28 | 62 | 33 |
49 | Fayetteville, NC | 46.84 | 96 | 41 | 79 | 42 |
50 | Spokane, WA | 46.64 | 127 | 89 | 20 | 44 |
51 | Charleston, WV | 46.50 | 47 | 33 | 157 | 21 |
52 | Atlanta, GA | 46.40 | 126 | 50 | 31 | 78 |
53 | Rochester, NY | 46.32 | 105 | 62 | 19 | 96 |
54 | Fresno, CA | 46.14 | 145 | 61 | 9 | 108 |
55 | Louisville, KY | 46.02 | 58 | 34 | 134 | 50 |
56 | Oklahoma City, OK | 45.85 | 80 | 59 | 91 | 37 |
57 | West Valley City, UT | 45.79 | 164 | 107 | 37 | 19 |
58 | El Paso, TX | 45.67 | 149 | 73 | 34 | 55 |
59 | New York, NY | 45.65 | 4 | 76 | 102 | 142 |
60 | Ontario, CA | 45.62 | 151 | 54 | 58 | 48 |
61 | Dallas, TX | 45.53 | 43 | 113 | 45 | 81 |
62 | San Antonio, TX | 45.35 | 111 | 86 | 55 | 36 |
63 | Tacoma, WA | 45.30 | 37 | 129 | 47 | 63 |
64 | Kansas City, MO | 45.26 | 61 | 57 | 150 | 25 |
65 | Stockton, CA | 45.14 | 69 | 80 | 22 | 128 |
66 | Modesto, CA | 45.13 | 33 | 115 | 71 | 69 |
67 | Jacksonville, FL | 45.10 | 136 | 55 | 84 | 41 |
68 | Winston-Salem, NC | 45.01 | 141 | 78 | 41 | 71 |
69 | Providence, RI | 44.82 | 173 | 36 | 26 | 114 |
70 | Orlando, FL | 44.74 | 161 | 69 | 43 | 54 |
71 | Garland, TX | 44.67 | 72 | 134 | 14 | 105 |
72 | Albuquerque, NM | 44.56 | 74 | 90 | 49 | 92 |
73 | Bakersfield, CA | 44.53 | 84 | 88 | 53 | 91 |
74 | Tucson, AZ | 44.44 | 110 | 66 | 77 | 74 |
75 | Columbia, SC | 44.41 | 117 | 71 | 57 | 82 |
76 | Corpus Christi, TX | 44.39 | 83 | 101 | 90 | 40 |
77 | Washington, DC | 44.18 | 15 | 152 | 8 | 154 |
78 | Worcester, MA | 44.18 | 86 | 131 | 16 | 116 |
79 | Fort Lauderdale, FL | 44.17 | 65 | 60 | 106 | 79 |
80 | Cheyenne, WY | 44.07 | 21 | 151 | 141 | 9 |
81 | Moreno Valley, CA | 44.03 | 76 | 79 | 12 | 137 |
82 | Colorado Springs, CO | 43.89 | 143 | 146 | 48 | 34 |
83 | Columbus, OH | 43.88 | 116 | 87 | 76 | 59 |
84 | Fontana, CA | 43.62 | 101 | 94 | 88 | 52 |
85 | Arlington, TX | 43.59 | 54 | 126 | 56 | 85 |
86 | Fort Wayne, IN | 43.58 | 175 | 45 | 61 | 90 |
87 | Buffalo, NY | 43.39 | 87 | 92 | 69 | 101 |
88 | Tampa, FL | 43.29 | 106 | 91 | 81 | 75 |
89 | Lewiston, ME | 43.28 | 78 | 82 | 153 | 27 |
90 | Long Beach, CA | 43.27 | 17 | 67 | 93 | 151 |
91 | Chesapeake, VA | 42.99 | 49 | 68 | 143 | 70 |
92 | Sacramento, CA | 42.87 | 138 | 84 | 30 | 130 |
93 | Mesa, AZ | 42.87 | 75 | 95 | 116 | 66 |
94 | Los Angeles, CA | 42.78 | 91 | 63 | 66 | 139 |
95 | Fort Worth, TX | 42.66 | 45 | 145 | 75 | 89 |
96 | Laredo, TX | 42.53 | 180 | 48 | 33 | 146 |
97 | Las Cruces, NM | 42.49 | 125 | 43 | 86 | 144 |
98 | Salem, OR | 42.49 | 158 | 117 | 83 | 38 |
99 | Denver, CO | 42.46 | 27 | 133 | 121 | 107 |
100 | Aurora, CO | 42.41 | 19 | 127 | 120 | 97 |
101 | Oakland, CA | 42.14 | 11 | 103 | 67 | 166 |
102 | Salt Lake City, UT | 42.04 | 159 | 111 | 119 | 31 |
103 | Knoxville, TN | 42.03 | 181 | 65 | 125 | 32 |
104 | Peoria, AZ | 41.63 | 25 | 110 | 155 | 86 |
105 | Grand Prairie, TX | 41.46 | 62 | 148 | 68 | 100 |
106 | Casper, WY | 41.41 | 14 | 141 | 163 | 51 |
107 | Port St. Lucie, FL | 41.37 | 156 | 49 | 135 | 94 |
108 | Pittsburgh, PA | 41.29 | 102 | 56 | 139 | 115 |
109 | Amarillo, TX | 41.27 | 130 | 136 | 149 | 23 |
110 | Huntsville, AL | 41.22 | 167 | 97 | 107 | 58 |
111 | Nashville, TN | 41.22 | 114 | 83 | 129 | 95 |
112 | Tempe, AZ | 41.17 | 170 | 105 | 89 | 72 |
113 | St. Petersburg, FL | 40.87 | 168 | 116 | 92 | 68 |
114 | Portland, OR | 40.65 | 94 | 130 | 94 | 118 |
115 | Des Moines, IA | 40.59 | 79 | 70 | 151 | 120 |
116 | Greensboro, NC | 40.57 | 163 | 74 | 112 | 113 |
117 | Nampa, ID | 40.33 | 166 | 140 | 87 | 67 |
118 | Anchorage, AK | 40.32 | 35 | 168 | 115 | 93 |
119 | Rancho Cucamonga, CA | 40.09 | 148 | 143 | 101 | 84 |
120 | Riverside, CA | 40.03 | 157 | 108 | 64 | 132 |
121 | Charlotte, NC | 39.99 | 68 | 135 | 122 | 123 |
122 | Lubbock, TX | 39.70 | 176 | 99 | 123 | 76 |
123 | Oceanside, CA | 39.68 | 64 | 114 | 117 | 152 |
124 | Santa Ana, CA | 39.31 | 165 | 102 | 60 | 148 |
125 | Irving, TX | 39.30 | 109 | 154 | 99 | 106 |
126 | Cape Coral, FL | 39.18 | 113 | 93 | 140 | 125 |
127 | Pembroke Pines, FL | 39.07 | 57 | 120 | 145 | 121 |
128 | Jersey City, NJ | 39.03 | 12 | 109 | 152 | 158 |
129 | Virginia Beach, VA | 39.00 | 51 | 160 | 136 | 111 |
130 | Anaheim, CA | 38.91 | 46 | 104 | 108 | 170 |
131 | Reno, NV | 38.82 | 182 | 125 | 72 | 99 |
132 | Grand Rapids, MI | 38.80 | 177 | 112 | 114 | 103 |
133 | Chula Vista, CA | 38.75 | 48 | 132 | 110 | 161 |
134 | Boston, MA | 38.71 | 115 | 122 | 80 | 156 |
135 | Glendale, CA | 38.69 | 24 | 81 | 156 | 168 |
136 | Santa Rosa, CA | 38.65 | 73 | 121 | 103 | 172 |
137 | Aurora, IL | 38.65 | 41 | 123 | 142 | 136 |
138 | St. Paul, MN | 38.56 | 50 | 147 | 133 | 135 |
139 | Honolulu, HI | 38.15 | 121 | 137 | 111 | 141 |
140 | Chandler, AZ | 38.11 | 70 | 156 | 148 | 104 |
141 | Tallahassee, FL | 38.10 | 179 | 52 | 147 | 126 |
142 | Lexington-Fayette, KY | 37.93 | 146 | 77 | 164 | 109 |
143 | Seattle, WA | 37.90 | 160 | 173 | 73 | 102 |
144 | Yonkers, NY | 37.90 | 10 | 144 | 154 | 163 |
145 | Juneau, AK | 37.34 | 26 | 172 | 126 | 143 |
146 | Santa Clarita, CA | 37.23 | 36 | 85 | 158 | 175 |
147 | Pearl City, HI | 36.94 | 7 | 167 | 144 | 149 |
148 | Garden Grove, CA | 36.77 | 82 | 139 | 118 | 173 |
149 | Oxnard, CA | 36.54 | 118 | 157 | 98 | 169 |
150 | Scottsdale, AZ | 36.50 | 29 | 164 | 167 | 117 |
151 | Minneapolis, MN | 36.47 | 150 | 159 | 127 | 134 |
152 | San Diego, CA | 36.33 | 155 | 138 | 113 | 167 |
153 | San Francisco, CA | 36.24 | 34 | 170 | 128 | 176 |
154 | Austin, TX | 36.17 | 137 | 166 | 124 | 138 |
155 | Cedar Rapids, IA | 36.11 | 44 | 119 | 171 | 129 |
156 | Manchester, NH | 36.07 | 154 | 150 | 131 | 145 |
157 | Charleston, SC | 35.73 | 142 | 153 | 138 | 147 |
158 | Huntington Beach, CA | 35.52 | 32 | 162 | 137 | 174 |
159 | Gilbert, AZ | 35.40 | 139 | 149 | 166 | 110 |
160 | Omaha, NE | 35.33 | 144 | 98 | 168 | 131 |
161 | Durham, NC | 35.24 | 153 | 155 | 130 | 157 |
162 | Billings, MT | 34.92 | 128 | 161 | 174 | 57 |
163 | Raleigh, NC | 34.75 | 99 | 176 | 132 | 155 |
164 | Warwick, RI | 34.67 | 56 | 158 | 161 | 159 |
165 | Rapid City, SD | 34.34 | 100 | 128 | 180 | 98 |
166 | Boise, ID | 33.92 | 174 | 165 | 146 | 133 |
167 | Missoula, MT | 33.54 | 171 | 96 | 175 | 122 |
168 | Portland, ME | 33.35 | 81 | 124 | 170 | 171 |
169 | San Jose, CA | 33.34 | 59 | 180 | 96 | 179 |
170 | Sioux Falls, SD | 33.17 | 55 | 142 | 181 | 119 |
171 | Irvine, CA | 31.90 | 67 | 163 | 159 | 178 |
172 | Plano, TX | 31.69 | 88 | 179 | 162 | 153 |
173 | Burlington, VT | 31.61 | 95 | 106 | 173 | 177 |
174 | Lincoln, NE | 30.90 | 169 | 118 | 177 | 160 |
175 | Bismarck, ND | 30.90 | 42 | 175 | 179 | 150 |
176 | Overland Park, KS | 30.31 | 134 | 171 | 176 | 140 |
177 | Fargo, ND | 30.09 | 172 | 169 | 178 | 127 |
178 | Columbia, MD | 30.04 | 40 | 178 | 160 | 181 |
179 | Nashua, NH | 30.00 | 123 | 177 | 169 | 164 |
180 | Madison, WI | 29.67 | 178 | 174 | 165 | 162 |
181 | Fremont, CA | 28.59 | 5 | 182 | 172 | 182 |
182 | South Burlington, VT | 27.25 | 13 | 181 | 182 | 180 |
*1=Most Stressed
Note: With the exception of “Total Score,” all of the columns in the table above depict the relative rank of that city, where a rank of 1 represents the worst conditions for that metric category.
Ask the Experts
Stress can be harmful to various aspects of our lives, including our jobs, finances and relationships. To help Americans find effective ways to manage their stress, we turned to a panel of health experts for advice. Click on the experts’ profiles to read their bios and thoughts on the following key questions:
- How can employers reduce work-related stress?
- What are the most effective ways for people to manage stress levels caused by the COVID-19 pandemic?
- What tips do you have for a person who finds managing finances to be stressful?
- What tips do you have for a person who wishes to find relaxation on a budget?
- What activities should families engage in together to minimize stress and ease tensions between family members?
Ask the Experts
Joe Synar Chair, Associate Professor, Department of Management, Spears School of Business – Oklahoma State University
Read More
Associate Professor, Department of Human Ecology – University of California, Davis
Read More
Associate Professor, School of Law – Seattle University
Read More
Professor, IO/Business Psychology, Organization Leadership, Behavioral Economics – The Chicago School of Professional Psychology
Read More
Methodology
In order to determine the most and least stressed cities in America, WalletHub compared 182 cities — including the 150 most populated U.S. cities, plus at least two of the most populated cities in each state — across four key dimensions: 1) Work Stress, 2) Financial Stress, 3) Family Stress, and 4) Health & Safety Stress. Our sample considers only the city proper in each case and excludes cities in the surrounding metro area.
We evaluated the four dimensions using 41 relevant metrics, which are listed below with their corresponding weights. Each metric was graded on a 100-point scale, with a score of 100 representing the highest levels of stress. Data for metrics marked with an asterisk (*) were available at the state level only.
Finally, we determined each city’s weighted average across all metrics to calculate its overall score and used the resulting scores to rank-order our sample.
Work Stress – Total Points: 25
- Average Weekly Work Hours: Full Weight (~2.94 Points)
- Job Security: Full Weight (~2.94 Points)
- Traffic Congestion: Full Weight (~2.94 Points)
Note: This metric measures the annual hours spent in congestion per auto commuter. - Unemployment Rate: Full Weight (~2.94 Points)
- Underemployment Rate: Full Weight (~2.94 Points)
- Share of Households where No Adults Work: Full Weight (~2.94 Points)
- Average Commute Time (in Minutes): Half Weight (~1.47 Points)
- Income Growth: Full Weight (~2.94 Points)
Note: “Growth” compares income levels in 2019 versus in 2018. - Job Satisfaction Ranking: Full Weight (~2.94 Points)
Note: This metric is based on Indeed Job Happiness Index.
Financial Stress – Total Points: 25
- Median Annual Household Income: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
Note: This metric was adjusted for the cost of living. - Share of Households Behind on Bills in Past 12 Months: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
- Foreclosure Rate: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
- Personal-Bankruptcy Rate: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
- Median Debt per Median Earnings: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
- Median Credit Score: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
- Poverty Rate: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
- Food Insecurity: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
Note: Food Insecurity is the percentage of the population who did not have access to a reliable source of food during the past year. - Housing Affordability: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
Note: This metric was calculated as follows: Housing Costs (accounts for both rental and sale prices) / Median Annual Household Income. - Share of Seriously Underwater Mortgages: Full Weight (~2.50 Points)
Note: This metric measures the proportion of seriously underwater mortgages, where the combined estimated balance of loans secured by those properties was at least 25 percent more than their estimated market value
Family Stress – Total Points: 25
- Separation & Divorce Rate: Full Weight (~5.00 Points)
- Share of Single Parent Households: Full Weight (~5.00 Points)
- Median Duration of Current Marriage: Full Weight (~5.00 Points)
- Availability of Childcare Workers per Total Number of Children: Full Weight (~5.00 Points)
- Child Care Cost: Full Weight (~5.00 Points)
Note: Monthly Cost of Preschool (or Kindergarten), Full Day, Private for 1 Child (proxy for child care cost).
Health & Safety Stress – Total Points: 25
- Average Daily COVID-19 Deaths in the Past Week per Capita: Double Weight (~2.50 Points)
- Average Daily COVID-19 Cases in the Past Week per Capita: Double Weight (~2.50 Points)
- Percentage of Residents Who Are Fully Vaccinated: Double Weight (~2.50 Points)
- Share of Adults in Fair or Poor Health: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Share of Adults Who Could Not See a Doctor Because of Cost: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Share of Adults Diagnosed with Depression: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Mental Health: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Suicide Rate: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Share of Insured Population: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Share of Adult Binge Drinkers: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
Note: This metric measures the percentage of adults consuming four or more alcoholic drinks on one occasion. - Share of Adult Smokers: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Physical-Activity Rate: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Share of Obese Residents: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Share of Adults with Inadequate Sleep: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
Note: This metric measures the percentage of adults sleeping fewer than seven hours per night. - Well-Being Index: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Crime Rate: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
- Hate-Crime Incidents per Capita: Full Weight (~1.25 Points)
Sources: Data used to create this ranking were collected from the U.S. Census Bureau, Bureau of Labor Statistics, INRIX, Chmura Economics & Analytics, Indeed, Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, Renwood RealtyTrac, County Health Ranking, Zillow, Administrative Office of the United States Courts, TransUnion, Department of Housing and Urban Development, Council for Community and Economic Research, Gallup-Healthways, Numbeo, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services, Federal Bureau of Investigation, The New York Times, ATTOM Data Solutions Q1 2021 U.S. Home Equity & Underwater Report and WalletHub research.
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